Cognitive Development in Rural Children Age 6-8 Years: Integrating Piaget's Theory and Neurocognitive Perspective

Norman Yulia; Sriyanto Sriyanto

doi:10.35445/alishlah.v18i1.9129

Cognitive Development in Rural Children Age 6-8 Years: Integrating Piaget's Theory and Neurocognitive Perspective

Norman Yulia, Sriyanto Sriyanto

Abstract

Cognitive development among children aged 6–8 in rural areas is often constrained by limited environmental stimulation, yet few studies integrate cognitive, socio-ecological, and neurocognitive perspectives to explain these disparities. This study aims to analyze how these dimensions interact in shaping children’s cognitive development in rural Indonesia. This research employed an exploratory qualitative case study involving nine children aged 6–8 years, nine parents, and two teachers in a rural area of Banjarnegara, Central Java. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, observations, and document analysis, and analyzed thematically using integrated coding based on Piagetian, Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological, and neurocognitive frameworks. The findings reveal three distinct developmental profiles based on levels of family stimulation. Children with high stimulation demonstrated stable concrete operational thinking, including conservation, classification, and sustained attention. Those with moderate stimulation showed transitional cognitive patterns with emerging but inconsistent logical reasoning. In contrast, children with low stimulation remained in the preoperational stage, characterized by perceptual reasoning, weak working memory, and limited self-regulation. The results indicate that cognitive development is influenced by the interaction between family support (microsystem), home–school continuity (mesosystem), and executive function capacity. The study highlights that cognitive development in rural children is not solely age-dependent but shaped by the synergy of environmental stimulation and neurocognitive processes. Strengthening family–school collaboration and providing context-based cognitive stimulation are essential to support optimal development in rural educational settings.

Keywords

cognitive development; rural children; family stimulation; bioecological theory; executive function

References

Adrdelean, D., & Erdeli, I. (2022). The Educational Level Of The Family And The Cognitive Development In Childhood. Journal Plus Education, 31(2/2022), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.24250/JPE/2/2022/DA/IE

Albert, W. D., Hanson, J. L., Skinner, A. T., Dodge, K. A., Steinberg, L., Deater‐Deckard, K., … Lansford, J. E. (2020). Individual differences in executive function partially explain the socioeconomic gradient in middle‐school academic achievement. Developmental Science, 23(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12937

Anderson, E. Z. (2022). Cognitive Development & Changes Across the Lifespan. A Primer for Understanding Development Across The Life Span.

Anggoro, S., Aszemi, N. M., Arshad, N. I., Abidin, A. I. Z., Sugathan, S. K., Aszemi, N. M., … Hawanti, S. (2020). Technological Culturation on e-Government Sustainability among the Rural Communities in Malaysia. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 29(6), 3866–3879.

Anser, M. K., Yousaf, S. U., Usman, B., Azam, K., Bandar, N. F. A., Jambari, H., … Zaman, K. (2023). Beyond climate change: Examining the role of environmental justice, agricultural mechanization, and social expenditures in alleviating rural poverty. Sustainable Futures, 6, 100130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sftr.2023.100130

Aranbarri, A., Aizpitarte, A., Arranz-Freijo, E., Fano, E., de Miguel, M. S., Stahmer, A. C., & Ibarluzea, J. M. (2023). What influences early cognitive development? Family context as a key mediator. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 84, 101480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101480

Betancur, L., Miller, P., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2024). Urban-rural achievement gap in low- and middle-income countries: The role of early childhood education. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 66, 11–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.08.008

Bilad, M. R., Zubaidah, S., & Prayogi, S. (2024). Addressing the PISA 2022 Results: A Call for Reinvigorating Indonesia’s Education System. International Journal of Essential Competencies in Education, 3(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.36312/ijece.v3i1.1935

Cuartas, J., Cappa, C., Mccoy, D., Donati, G., Sánchez, J., Heymann, J., … Raikes, A. (2023). Family play , reading , and other stimulation and early childhood development in five low-and-middle-income countries, (April 2022), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13404

Cuartas, J., McCoy, D., Sánchez, J., Behrman, J., Cappa, C., Donati, G., … Yoshikawa, H. (2023). Family play, reading, and other stimulation and early childhood development in five low-and-middle-income countries. Developmental Science, 26(6), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13404

Di Marco, S., Fattori, P., Galati, G., Galletti, C., Lappe, M., Maltempo, T., … Pitzalis, S. (2021). Preference for locomotion-compatible curved paths and forward direction of self-motion in somatomotor and visual areas. Cortex, 137, 74–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2020.12.021

Dinata, P. A. C., Lukas, R., Hartanto, T. J., & Sari, D. K. (2025). Scientific Reasoning Ability of High School Students in Palangka Raya in Physics Learning. JURNAL EDUSCIENCE, 12(5), 1438–1452.

El Zaatari, W., & Maalouf, I. (2022). How the Bronfenbrenner bio-ecological system theory explains the development of students’ sense of belonging to school? Sage Open, 12(4), 21582440221134090.

Freitas, L. L., Cardoso, T. S. G., Argollo, N., & Mello, C. B. (2022). Socioeconomic Status, Urbanization and Executive Functions Development: Differences Between Urban and Rural Children. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 38. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102.3772e38220.en

Glorius, B., Bürer, M., & Schneider, H. (2021). Integration of refugees in rural areas and the role of the receiving society: conceptual review and analytical framework. Erdkunde, 75(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.2021.01.04

Hanifah, I., Oviyanti, F., & Muhtarom. (2022). Child cognitive development based on the maternal education. Aṭfālunā Journal of Islamic Early Childhood Education, 5(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.32505/atfaluna.v5i1.4070

Hashim, M. S., & Said, I. (2021). Vocabulary Knowledge in Science Learning on Children’s Development through Farming Activities in the Rural Area. Southeast Asia Early Childhood, 10(2), 119–131.

Hayat, F., Khan, M., Ahmad, S., Kamran, M., & Maleeha. (2024). Exploring the Characteristics of Concrete Operational Stage among Primary School Students. Qlantic Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 5(1), 124–132. https://doi.org/10.55737/qjssh.786349315

Hollweck, T. (2015). Robert K. Yin.(2014). Case Study Research Design and Methods . Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 30(1), 108–110.

Holmes, S. R., Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., Thompson, A. M., & Danforth, L. E. (2019). Family–School Partnerships in Tiered Systems of Support. In Establishing Family–School Partnerships in School Psychology (hal. 42–64). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781138400382-3

Hong, S. J., Sisk, L. M., Caballero, C., Mekhanik, A., Roy, A. K., Milham, M. P., & Gee, D. G. (2021). Decomposing complex links between the childhood environment and brain structure in school-aged youth. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100919

Horowitz-Kraus, T., Magaliff, L. S., & Schlaggar, B. L. (2024). Neurobiological Evidence for the Benefit of Interactive Parent–Child Storytelling: Supporting Early Reading Exposure Policies. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11(1), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/23727322231217461

Howard, S. J., Vasseleu, E., Neilsen-Hewett, C., de Rosnay, M., & Williams, K. E. (2022). Predicting Academic School Readiness and Risk Status from Different Assessment Approaches and Constructs of Early Self-Regulation. Child & Youth Care Forum, 51(2), 369–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09636-y

Jadidah, I. T., Annisah, R., Melinda, M., Padiman, P., & Anggilin, K. (2023). Analysis of the Implications of Learning Elementary Mathematics According to Jean Piaget’s Theory. Journal Of Dehasen Educational Review, 4(02), 139–144. https://doi.org/10.33258/joder.v4i02.4256

Klahr, D., & Wallace, J. G. (2022). Cognitive development: An information-processing view. Taylor & Francis.

Kohnstamm, D. (2021). Jean Piaget, Children and the Class-inclusion Problem. Routledge.

Kubota, M., Hadley, L. V, Schaeffner, S., Könen, T., Meaney, J.-A., Auyeung, B., … Chevalier, N. (2020). Consistent use of proactive control and relation with academic achievement in childhood. Cognition, 203, 104329.

Larsson, J., Nyborg, L., & Psouni, E. (2022). The role of family function and triadic interaction on preterm child development—A systematic review. Children, 9(11), 1695.

Lehalle, H. (2020). Cognitive development in adolescence: Thinking freed from concrete constraints. In Handbook of Adolescent Development (hal. 71–89). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203969861-5

Lurie, L. A., Hagen, M. P., McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Rosen, M. L. (2021). Mechanisms linking socioeconomic status and academic achievement in early childhood: Cognitive stimulation and language. Cognitive development, 58, 101045.

Luo, Y., Tack, H., Valcke, M., Vanderlinde, R., & Mo, L. (2022). Unpacking the rural–urban gap of teacher involvement in inquiry-based working: The roles of school research culture and infrastructure. Professional Development in Education, 51(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2022.2155985

Masters, A. S., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Levine, D., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2022). Parents Matter: The Cornerstone for Children’s Cognitive and Language Development. In The Cambridge Handbook of Parenting (hal. 95–119). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108891400.007

Mauluddia, Y., & Solehuddin, M. (2023). The Application of Playing in Early Childhood Education Based on Piaget’s Way of Thinking. Al-Athfaal: Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 6(2), 143. https://doi.org/10.24042/00202361730300

Miller, S. A. (2020). Childhood: Cognitive Development. In Parents’ Beliefs About Children (hal. 164–201). Oxford University PressNew York. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190874513.003.0006

Misgav, K., & Daniel, E. (2022). Conceptualizing values abstractly: Longitudinal development and the role of concept formation and working memory. Cognitive Development, 64, 101267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101267

Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Wang, Y., Hillemeier, M. M., Oh, Y., & Maczuga, S. (2019). Executive function deficits in kindergarten predict repeated academic difficulties across elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.06.009

Moyano, S., Rico-Picó, J., Conejero, Á., Hoyo, Á., Ballesteros-Duperón, M. de los Á., & Rueda, M. R. (2023). Influence of the environment on the early development of attentional control. Infant Behavior and Development, 71, 101842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2023.101842

Muqaddaskhan, U. (2024). Understanding The Development Of Thinking In Children Of Primary School Age. American Journal Of Social Sciences And Humanity Research, 4(3), 187–194. https://doi.org/10.37547/ajsshr/Volume04Issue03-25

Navarro, J. L., & Tudge, J. R. H. (2025). Understanding and Teaching Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory. Taylor & Francis.

Niebaum, J., & Munakata, Y. (2022). Why doesn’t executive function training improve academic achievement? Rethinking individual differences, relevance, and engagement from a contextual framework. Journal of Cognition and Development, 24(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2022.2160723

Nirwansyah, A. W., Braun, B., & Ramdani, F. (2022). Salt for living: sustainable practice of salt harvesting in the Cirebonese community and its threat by coastal hazard. In Indigenous People and Nature (hal. 577–592). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91603-5.00006-3

Otero-Mayer, A., González-Benito, A., Gutiérrez-de-Rozas, B., & Expósito, E. (2025). Family involvement in early childhood education: A systematic review of its measurement. Early Childhood Education Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-025-02024-4

Pakpahan, F. H., & Saragih, M. (2022). Theory Of Cognitive Development By Jean Piaget. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 55–60. https://doi.org/10.52622/joal.v2i2.79

Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (2008). The psychology of the child. Basic books.

Rabindran, & Madanagopal, D. (2020). Piaget’s Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development- An Overview. Scholars Journal of Applied Medical Sciences, 8(9), 2152–2157. https://doi.org/10.36347/sjams.2020.v08i09.034

Raditya Purnomo, B., Sriyanto, S., & Thanh Nguyen, P. (2020). Education and Socialization of Mentally Challenged People and Similarities and Differences. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24(8), 1524–1534.

Rakesh, D., McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Humphreys, K. L., & Rosen, M. L. (2024). Environmental contributions to cognitive development: The role of cognitive stimulation. Developmental Review, 73, 101135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2024.101135

Randall, R., Sukoco, G. A., Heyward, M., Purba, R., Arsendy, S., Zamjani, I., & Hafiszha, A. (2022). Reforming Indonesia’s curriculum: how Kurikulum Merdeka aims to address learning loss and learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Direktorat Sekolah Dasar, 1–46.

Rie, E. D., & Rie, H. E. (1979). Reading deficits and intellectual patterns among children with neurocognitive dysfunctions. Intelligence, 3(4), 383–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(79)90006-0

Risyanindya, A., Batara, D. R., Khairunnisa, I. R., Listiawati, R. P., Tania, S., & Hamidah, S. (2024). Memahami Kebutuhan Bimbingan Komunikasi untuk Anak Pra-Operasional. Jurnal Pendidikan Anak, 13(1), 126–137. https://doi.org/10.21831/jpa.v13i1.361

Roebers, C. M. (2022). Six- to eight-year-olds’ performance in the Heart and Flower task: Emerging proactive cognitive control. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923615

ROHMAH, S., Nurlaela, E., & Ramdhoni, I. (2025). Peran Orang Tua Dalam Mendukung Perkembangan Kognitif Anak Usia Dini. Al Hanin, 5(1).

Seginer, R. (2006). Parents' educational involvement: A developmental ecology perspective. Parenting, 6(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0601_1

Shen, C., & Yang, F. (2024). Unlocking Interactive Learning: Applying Bioecological Theory to Parent-Child Interaction in Educational Product Design (hal. 201–218). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-61359-3_15

Shukia, R., & Marobo, S. (2024). Parental engagement in children’s pre-primary education in marginalized communities in Tanzania Before and During the COVID-19 Era. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 38(sup1), S61--S76.

Skelton, A. E., Maule, J., & Franklin, A. (2022). Infant color perception: Insight into perceptual development. Child development perspectives, 16(2), 90–95.

Sofni Indah Arifa Lubis, Zannatun Nisya, & Yuliana Lubis. (2024). Learning Environment and Early Childhood Character Development in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. International Journal of Educational Research, 1(4), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.62951/ijer.v1i4.93

Solichah, N., Fardana, N. A., & Samian, S. (2025). Determinants of parental involvement in early literacy development: a scoping review. International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS), 14(1), 416. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijphs.v14i1.24640

Sugiyono, S. (2017). Qualitative Quantitative Research Methods and R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta. Procrastination And Task Avoidance: Theory, Research and Treatment. New York: Plenum Press, Yudistira P, Chandra.

Sun, Y., & Wang, M. (2022). Early Home Learning Environment (HLE) and Children’s Cognitive Development: A Review of Empirical Studies. The Educational Review, USA, 6(9), 519–523. https://doi.org/10.26855/er.2022.09.013

Tong, P., & An, I. S. (2024). Review of studies applying Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory in international and intercultural education research. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1233925

Tudge, J. R. H., Merçon-Vargas, E. A., Liang, Y., & Payir, A. (2022). The Importance of Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory for Early Childhood Education. In Theories of Early Childhood Education (hal. 50–61). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003288077-5

Ulfadhilah, K. (2024). Penanaman Karakter Disiplin di Lingkungan Ramah Anak. Kiddo: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam Anak Usia Dini, 153–165.

w John, C., & J David, C. (2023). Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and mixed methods approaches.

Walhovd, K. B., Lövden, M., & Fjell, A. M. (2023). Timing of lifespan influences on brain and cognition. Trends in cognitive sciences, 27(10), 901–915.

Wang, Y., Huebner, E. S., & Tian, L. (2021). Parent-child cohesion, self-esteem, and academic achievement: The longitudinal relations among elementary school students. Learning and Instruction, 73, 101467.

Winstanley, M. A. (2022). Jean Piaget on Reasoning and Logic. Philosophical Thought.

Wiseheart, M., & Munakata, Y. (2008). Why do children perseverate when they seem to know better: Graded working memory, or directed inhibition? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(6), 1058–1065. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193091

Xu, T., & Zhang, B. (2021). Withdrawn: Improving thinking skills in early childhood using effective teaching strategies. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 101704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101704

Xu, Y., Wang, L., Yang, W., Cai, Y., Gao, W., Tao, T., & Fan, C. (2022). Problem Mechanism and Solution Strategy of Rural Children’s Community Inclusion—The Role of Peer Environment and Parental Community Participation. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.772362

Yang, S., & Eunjoo Oh. (2024). Analysis of Children’s Development Pathways based on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. International Journal of Education and Humanities, 16(3), 250–258. https://doi.org/10.54097/vaap3p97

Zakharova, M. N., Machinskaya, R. I., & Agris, A. R. (2022). Brain Executive Functions and Learning Readiness in Senior Preschool Age. Cultural-Historical Psychology, 18(3), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.17759/chp.2022180311

Zhang, Y., Tso, R. V., & Wang, M. (2023). (2023). Socioeconomic status and early literacy development: Mediating effects of home literacy environment and parent–child interaction. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 365–377. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.07.005

Zou, Z. (2023). Family-School Communication: How Conflict between Family and School Expectation Influences Children’s Development. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 12, 241–246. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v12i.7647

DOI: https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v18i1.9129